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What is language? Present different views and four properties. начать обучение
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Language is a system of communication using symbols or sounds. It’s seen as a rule system (structuralism) or a communicative tool (functionalism). Properties: arbitrariness, productivity, displacement, and cultural transmission.
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Compare English to Polish. начать обучение
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Both are Indo-European, SVO languages. English has simpler grammar, fixed word order, and articles; Polish uses rich inflection and flexible word order.
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Define phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. начать обучение
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Phonetics studies speech sounds; Phonology studies sound systems; Morphology studies word formation; Syntax studies sentence structure; Semantics focuses on meaning; Pragmatics studies meaning in context.
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Origins of language and how we know about past languages. начать обучение
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Language likely evolved to help humans cooperate and survive. Linguists study past forms through comparative analysis and written evidence.
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Natural, ethnic, pidgin, dialect, idiolect, artificial languages. начать обучение
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Natural languages evolve naturally; ethnic ones belong to an ethnic group; pidgins are simplified contact languages; dialects are regional varieties; idiolects are individual speech styles; artificial languages are invented (e.g. Esperanto).
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Features of formal/academic writing. начать обучение
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Formal writing uses objective tone, no slang or contractions, clear structure, logical argumentation, and proper referencing.
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What is rhetoric? Give examples of rhetorical devices. начать обучение
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Rhetoric is the art of effective communication. Common devices: metaphor, repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question.
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Literal vs figurative language. Examples. начать обучение
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Literal language means exactly what it says; figurative language uses imagery or comparison. Examples: metaphor, simile, personification.
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What is the Renaissance and its impact? 17th c.) inspired by classical antiquity. It emphasized humanism, science, and the arts, breaking from medieval religious focus. начать обучение
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Literary genres and subgenres. начать обучение
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Main genres: prose, poetry, drama. Subgenres: novel, short story, epic, tragedy, comedy, sonnet.
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Both involve grammar and meaning. L1 is learned unconsciously from birth; L2 is often learned later, consciously, and influenced by L1.
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Chomsky proposed that humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that allows natural learning of grammar.
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Progress and errors in behaviorism, nativism, cognitivism, and interactionism. начать обучение
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Behaviorism sees errors as bad habits; Nativism sees them as natural rule testing; Cognitivism treats them as part of mental processing; Interactionism sees them as normal in communication.
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His five hypotheses: acquisition-learning, monitor, natural order, input (“i+1”), and affective filter. Language develops through meaningful, low-stress input.
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Teaching grammar (example subsystem). начать обучение
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Teach rules in context, move from explanation to practice to communication. Use examples and give feedback on accuracy and fluency.
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Training speaking (example skill). начать обучение
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Focus on both fluency and accuracy using role-plays, discussions, and problem-solving tasks, while encouraging confidence.
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The ability to take responsibility for one’s learning. Teachers promote it through self-assessment and choice; learners plan, reflect, and set goals.
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Three mainstream methods. начать обучение
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Grammar-Translation (focus on rules), Direct Method (target language only), and Communicative Approach (focus on meaning and fluency).
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Suggestopedia (relaxation and music), Total Physical Response (movement), Silent Way (discovery learning). Useful mainly for beginners.
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Kompetencja językowa vs komunikacyjna. начать обучение
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Kompetencja językowa to znajomość zasad języka; kompetencja komunikacyjna to umiejętność użycia języka w odpowiednim kontekście, także kulturowo.
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Language centers in the brain. начать обучение
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Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (comprehension), both in the left hemisphere.
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Communication model (psychological aspect). Weaver model: sender → message → receiver with feedback. Influenced by motivation, emotion, and perception. начать обучение
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Specific vs non-specific speech/language disorders. начать обучение
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Specific (e.g. DLD) affect language only; non-specific occur with other issues like autism or intellectual disability.
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A phoneme changes meaning (/p/ vs /b/); an allophone is a variant of the same sound ([pʰ] in pin). Two sounds are contrastive if they change meaning.
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Articulatory tract and speech organs. начать обучение
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Air from lungs passes through vocal cords and articulators (tongue, lips, teeth, palate) shaping sounds.
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About 12 vowels, 8 diphthongs (/eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, etc.), and triphthongs (/aɪə/, /eɪə/). Classified by tongue position and lip rounding.
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English consonant system. начать обучение
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Consonants differ by place (bilabial, alveolar), manner (plosive, fricative, nasal), and voicing (/p b/, /f v/, /m n/).
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Stress is syllable emphasis; intonation is pitch movement. Falling tone = statements, rising tone = questions, fall-rise = uncertainty.
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Phonological processes in connected speech. начать обучение
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Assimilation (“good boy” → [gʊb bɔɪ]), elision (“next day” → [neks deɪ]), linking /r/, vowel reduction to schwa.
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Express ability, permission, obligation, or probability: can, may, must, should, might. начать обучение
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Main derivational processes. начать обучение
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Prefixation (unhappy), suffixation (teacher), conversion (to email), compounding (blackboard), back-formation (edit).
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Sentence types in English. начать обучение
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Declarative (statement), interrogative (question), imperative (command), exclamative (emotion).
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Phrase structure and types of phrases. начать обучение
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Words combine into phrases: noun (the house), verb (has gone), adjective (very tall), adverb (quite quickly), prepositional (in the park).
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Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, interjections.
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flower), meronymy (wheel начать обучение
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car). cold), homonymy (bank), polysemy (head), hyponymy (rose
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The smallest meaning unit. Free (book), bound (-s), inflectional (walked), derivational (teacher).
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State verbs (no continuous). начать обучение
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Know, believe, love, hate, seem, understand, belong. Used in simple, not continuous, forms.
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Lexical contrast problems (English False friends, literal translations, wrong prepositions, and phrasal verbs cause errors. начать обучение
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Word order contrast (English English is fixed SVO; Polish is flexible. Learners may invert order or omit auxiliaries. начать обучение
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Polish uses grammatical gender; English uses natural gender. Leads to errors with he, she, it. начать обучение
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criticizing social injustice. начать обучение
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A long prose narrative exploring human experience. Dickens wrote Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations
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A 19th-century American movement valuing intuition, nature, and self-reliance. Key figures: Emerson and Thoreau.
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1998) between Catholic nationalists and Protestant unionists; ended with the Good Friday Agreement. начать обучение
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Conflict in Northern Ireland (1960s
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USA ≈ 9.8 million km², about 335 million people. California (film, tech), Texas (oil), New York (finance, culture).
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New England and its status. начать обучение
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Northeastern US region (Massachusetts, etc.), site of first English colonies; important in early American history and education.
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Civil rights leader using non-violent protest and media. Assassinated in Memphis, 1968.
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Three decisive British battles. начать обучение
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Hastings (1066), Agincourt (1415), Battle of Britain (1940).
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899), defended England from Vikings, promoted education and unity. начать обучение
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Native Americans descended from Asian migrants crossing the Bering land bridge about 15,000 years ago.
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English Puritans who sailed on the Mayflower (1620) to Plymouth for religious freedom.
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