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The ability to create an infinite number of new sentences that are also grammatically correct
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Give an example of a phrase structure rule начать обучение
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The deep structure and surface structure начать обучение
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The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. • That same deep structure can be the source of many other surface structures
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specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents
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Transform sentences, e.g., from statements to questions
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example of a transformational rule начать обучение
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Statement: "She is happy." → Question: "Is she happy?
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is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences (Semantics is concerned with objective or general meaning)
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Conceptual and associative meaning
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(denotative, literal, dictinary) начать обучение
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covers basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word needle - ‘thin, sharp, steel instrument’ (basic components of the word)
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all types of associations or connotations different people might have attached to a word
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– crucial elements or features of meaning Example: to be a subject of a sentence a noun must be animate Boy (+animate) Hamburger (-animate)
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The roles of sentence participants, e.g., agent, theme The boy kicked the ball. • The agent - ‘the entity that performs the action’ (the boy) • The theme (the patient) – ‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’ (the ball)
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1 agent, 2 theme, 3 instument, 4 experiencer, 5 localisation, 6 source, 7 goal
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‘the entity that performs the action
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‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’
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an entity used to perform an action
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an entity (a person) who has a feeling, perception or state; s/he is not performing any action
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the location, source, goal начать обучение
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The location - where an entity is (on the table, in the room) • The source – where the entity moves from (from Chcago) • The goal - where the entity moves to (to New Orlean)
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The relationships between words
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7 types of lexical relations начать обучение
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Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, polysemy, metonymy, collocations.
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Two or more words with very closely related meanings; they can be substituted for each other in sentences
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Words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g., "bare" and "bear"
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The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category The best examples of a category, e.g., "sparrow" as a prototype of a bird.
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Antonyms are divided into two main types: • ‘gradable’ (opposites along a scale) • ‘non-gradable’ (direct opposites) начать обучение
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Two forms with opposite meanings alive/dead, big/small, fast/slow, happy/sad, hot/cold, long/short, male/female, married/single, old/new, rich/poor, true/false
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When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described animal/dog, dog/poodle, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan
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when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution) bat (flying creature) – bat (used in sports) mole (on skin) – mole (small animal) pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye) race (contest of speed) – race (ethnic group)
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When two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation bare/bear, meat/meet, flour/flower, pail/pale, right/write, sew/so and to/too/two.
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Two or more words with the same form and related meanings Head - the object on top of the body, on top of a glass of beer, person at the top of a company or department. • Foot (of person, of bed, of mountain) or • Run (person does, water does, colors do)
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close connection in everyday experience a container–contents relation (bottle/water, can/juice), • a whole–part relation (car/wheels, house/roof) • a representative–symbol relationship (king/crown, the President/the White House
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a predictable combination of words‘; words frequently occurring together Hammer – nail • Table – chair • Butter – bread • Needle – thread • Salt – pepper
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complementary, gradable, and relational gradable - opposite along on a scale (big-small, old-new, early-late) non-gradable - direct opposite (black-white, dead-alive, true-false) reelational - frtom the same family (parent-child, teacher-student, give-recive)
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special properties of human language (natural language) начать обучение
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Duality, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness Displacement • Arbitrariness • Productivity • Cultural transmission • Duality
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What are the areas in the brain responsible for speech начать обучение
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Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (understanding the speech)
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is a bundle of nerve fibers which forms a connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. • Discoverd by Wernicke
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an area in the brain that controls movement of the muscles. The part of the motor cortex that controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx is located close to Broca’s area
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3 difficulties in speech production начать обучение
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• The tip of the tongue phenomenon • A slip of the tongue • A slip of the ear
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The tip of the tongue phenomenon начать обучение
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We feel that we know the word but it doesn’t want to come to the surface
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An unintentional error in speaking, where someone says something different from what they intended. It often involves mixing up sounds, words, or sentence structures noble tons of soil --- noble sons of toil A speech error where a person unintentionally says a different word or phrase than intended.
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A mishearing of spoken words
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Broca’s aphasia • Wernicke’s aphasia • Conduction aphasia начать обучение
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an impairment of language function caused by localized brain damage; it results in difficulties understanding and/or producing linguistic forms
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a reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation, slow, often effortful speech , lexical morphemes (e.g. nouns, verbs). frequent omission of functional morphemes (e.g. articles, prepositions) and inflections (e.g. plural - s, past tense -ed) speech is ‘agrammatic’. I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast
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related to difficulties in auditory comprehension, sometimes called ‘sensory aphasia’. начать обучение
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-very fluent speech which is, however, often difficult to make sense of. very general terms are used, even in response to questions for specific information. difficulties finding the correct word (anomia); to deal with problem → describing the objects or their puropse
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Caused by the damage to the arcuate fasciculus начать обучение
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sometimes mispronounce words, but usually do not have articulation problems. they are fluent, but rhythm may be disrupted due to pauses comprehension of spoken words is good. repeating a word or phrase (spoken by someone else) is problematic.
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A period in childhood during which language acquisition occurs most efficiently; after this period, learning language becomes more difficult. first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language
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difference between acquiring a language and learning a language начать обучение
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acquiring a language natural process when a child learns the language throught the contact with enviroment without formal instructions learning- aquiring the language through formal way, from books, lessons, grammal rules
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The Language Acquisition Device – a hypothetical mechanism in a child's brain that facilitates language acquisition allows children laquiring the language quickly and effortcently
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What does it mean that interaction is required in first language acquisition начать обучение
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Children need to interact with others to effectively acquire language listening is not enough to master the languag. children must particioate in interactions with other people
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What does it mean that cultural transmission is required in first language acquisition начать обучение
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Language is passed down through generations in a social and cultural context how the concepts from one culture are passed down from generation to generation
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Child-Directed Speech – the way adults speak to children, characterized by simple vocabulary, clear articulation, and repetition
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