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What is the primary focus of Contrastive Linguistics? начать обучение
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Contrastive Linguistics systematically compares languages to identify their similarities and differences at every level of linguistic structure.
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Name three levels of linguistic structure studied in Contrastive Linguistics. начать обучение
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Phonology, morphology, syntax.
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What are the two main approaches to Contrastive Linguistics? начать обучение
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What is the purpose of the theoretical approach in Contrastive Linguistics? начать обучение
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To expand linguistic theory through cross-linguistic comparisons and focus on abstract models and linguistic universals.
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How is the applied approach in Contrastive Linguistics used? начать обучение
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To solve practical issues in language-related fields, such as language teaching and translation.
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What is a minimal pair in phonology? начать обучение
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Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position and have different meanings.
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Give an example of a minimal pair in English. начать обучение
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/pæt/ ("pat") vs. /bæt/ ("bat").
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Phonetically distinct variants of the same phoneme that do not change meaning.
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начать обучение
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The rules governing permissible sound combinations in a language.
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How does English handle word stress compared to Polish? начать обучение
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English has variable stress (e.g., "photograph" as noun vs. verb), while Polish has fixed penultimate stress (e.g., "kochamy").
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What is a key difference in vowel systems between English and Polish? начать обучение
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English has more diphthongs, while Polish includes nasal vowels.
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What is the primary assessment method for the Contrastive Linguistics course? начать обучение
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Final written exam (100%), including multiple-choice and open-ended questions.
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What are the four main topics covered in Month 1 of the course? начать обучение
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Phonological differences, morphological categories and classification, borrowings, and language contact.
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What is the focus of Month 2 in the course structure? начать обучение
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Lexicalization, semantic and syntactic structures in contrastive perspective, pragmatics.
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What is the role of Contrastive Linguistics in language learning? начать обучение
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Predicts learner errors caused by L1 interference and enhances awareness of cross-linguistic patterns.
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How does Contrastive Linguistics contribute to translation? начать обучение
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Ensures semantic and pragmatic accuracy and preserves style, register, and culturally specific expressions.
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What is Error Analysis in Contrastive Linguistics? начать обучение
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Examination of learner errors to understand underlying causes, such as L1 interference or overgeneralization.
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What is Universal Grammar in the context of Contrastive Linguistics? начать обучение
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Exploration of innate grammatical principles across languages.
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What is an example of a phonological error Polish speakers might make in English? начать обучение
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Substituting /θ/ or /ð/ with [t] or [d], as in "think" pronounced as [tɪŋk].
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What is the phenomenon where Polish speakers might insert vowels to break up consonant clusters in English? начать обучение
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What are the three main morphological classifications of languages? начать обучение
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Analytic (Isolating), Synthetic (Fusional), Agglutinative.
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начать обучение
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The smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function in a language.
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What is the difference between free and bound morphemes? начать обучение
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Free morphemes can stand alone (e.g., "dog"), while bound morphemes must attach to a root (e.g., "-s").
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What are the two main types of morphemes? начать обучение
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Lexical morphemes (carry meaning) and grammatical morphemes (serve grammatical purposes).
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What is the difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes? начать обучение
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Derivational morphemes change meaning or word class (e.g., "-ness"), while inflectional morphemes modify a word to indicate grammatical information (e.g., "-s" for plural).
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What are the four types of affixation? начать обучение
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Prefixation, suffixation, infixation, circumfixation.
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What is compounding in morphology? начать обучение
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Combining free morphemes into one word (e.g., "laptop").
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What is blending in morphology? начать обучение
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Combining parts of two or more words (e.g., "smog" from "smoke" + "fog").
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Repeating all or part of a morpheme (e.g., "bye-bye").
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What is conversion (zero derivation)? начать обучение
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Changing a word's grammatical category without adding a morpheme (e.g., "text" as a noun and verb).
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What type of morphology does English primarily exhibit? начать обучение
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Analytic/weakly inflectional.
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What type of morphology does Polish primarily exhibit? начать обучение
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Synthetic/highly inflectional.
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What are the inflectional categories for nouns in Polish? начать обучение
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Case (7), number, gender.
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What are the inflectional categories for verbs in Polish? начать обучение
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Person, number, gender, tense, aspect.
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What is the primary difference in transparency of meaning between English and Polish morphology? начать обучение
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Polish morphology is usually more transparent and regular.
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What role does inflection play in Polish syntax? начать обучение
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Inflection carries grammatical relations, allowing for flexible word order.
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Is the affix "-ly" in English inflectional or derivational? начать обучение
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What are the two meanings of the prefix "dis-" in English? начать обучение
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Negation/reversal (e.g., "disconnect") and intensification (e.g., "disgraceful").
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What morphological process is involved in the word "exam" (from "examination")? начать обучение
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Provide an example of compounding in Polish. начать обучение
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"piorunochron" (lightning conductor, from "piorun" + "chronić").
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начать обучение
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The process whereby a conceptual meaning or semantic content becomes encoded in a single lexical item (word or idiom).
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How does English typically express aspect? начать обучение
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Periphrastically (e.g., "was reading," "has eaten").
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How does Polish typically lexicalize aspect? начать обучение
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Through verb prefixes (e.g., "czytać" → "przeczytać").
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How is motion and direction encoded in English? начать обучение
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Path is encoded in particles (e.g., "run out," "go in").
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How is motion and direction lexicalized in Polish? начать обучение
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Path is lexicalized through verb prefixes (e.g., "wybiec," "dojść").
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What is the difference in lexicalizing degree and evaluation between English and Polish? начать обучение
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English is often analytic (e.g., "more interesting"), while Polish encodes it morphologically (e.g., "duży" → "największy").
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How is negation lexicalized in English? начать обучение
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Irregular negative prefixes (e.g., "un-," "in-," "dis-").
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How is negation lexicalized in Polish? начать обучение
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Highly productive and regular negation with "nie-" (e.g., "niesprawiedliwy").
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What is the difference in category change between English and Polish? начать обучение
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English uses conversion (e.g., "text" → "to text"), while Polish requires overt morphology (e.g., "czytać" → "czytanie").
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How are semantic roles expressed in English? начать обучение
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By prepositions (e.g., "with," "to," "for").
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How are semantic roles encoded in Polish? начать обучение
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In case morphology (e.g., "dom" → "domu" → "domem").
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What are satellite-framed languages? начать обучение
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Languages where path is encoded in particles or prefixes (e.g., English, Polish, German).
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What are verb-framed languages? начать обучение
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Languages where path is encoded in the verb (e.g., Spanish, Japanese, French).
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What is semantic structure? начать обучение
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The organization of meaning components within a linguistic unit, including their relations and internal hierarchy.
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What is the role of thematic roles in semantic structures? начать обучение
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They describe the roles participants play in an event (e.g., AGENT, THEME, EXPERIENCER).
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What is Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM)? начать обучение
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A theory proposing that all languages share a small set of semantic primes (irreducible meanings) that can explicate complex meanings.
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Who proposed the NSM theory? начать обучение
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What are semantic primes in NSM? начать обучение
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Irreducible meanings (e.g., "I," "you," "want," "know," "do") that are universal across languages.
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начать обучение
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A lexical database showing how words are connected by meaning in English.
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начать обучение
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A lexical database for Polish, similar to WordNet, showing semantic connections between words.
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What is a borrowing in linguistics? начать обучение
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A linguistic unit taken from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language due to language contact.
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What are some examples of English borrowings in Polish related to gaming? начать обучение
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"zlevelować postać" (to level up a character), "dive’ować bota" (to dive a bot).
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What are the four main reasons for borrowing? начать обучение
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Lexical gaps, prestige/social status, cultural contact, bilingualism/code-switching.
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What are the two levels of integration for borrowings in Polish? начать обучение
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Low integration (unchanged forms) and higher integration (inflectional integration).
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Provide an example of a low-integration borrowing in Polish. начать обучение
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"support," "deadline," "server."
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Provide an example of a higher-integration borrowing in Polish. начать обучение
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"support**em**," "server**ów**," "deadline**em**."
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How does Polish adapt English borrowings morphologically? начать обучение
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By deriving verbs using **-ować** (e.g., "backupować," "targetować").
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How does Polish handle aspect in borrowings? начать обучение
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By adding verbal prefixes to signal aspect and completion (e.g., "zlevelować," "zdeployować").
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What are hybrid constructions in the context of borrowings? начать обучение
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Combinations of English lexemes with Polish syntax (e.g., "Jesteśmy na **callu** z klientem").
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What is a structural calque? начать обучение
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A direct translation of a foreign phrase or structure (e.g., "pozostaniemy w kontakcie" ← "stay in touch").
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What is semantic borrowing? начать обучение
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When meanings shift under the influence of another language (e.g., "dokładnie" as a discourse marker ← "exactly").
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What sociolinguistic factors influence the outcome of language contact? начать обучение
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Language prestige, speaker attitudes, degree of bilingualism, domains of use.
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What are pidgins and creoles? начать обучение
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Pidgins are simplified contact languages, while creoles are pidgins that have developed into full languages (e.g., Haitian Creole).
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What are some examples of hybrid constructions in Polish? начать обучение
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"Złapiemy się potem na **evencie**," "Ten plik się nie **uploaduje**."
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What is the role of bilingualism in borrowing? начать обучение
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Bilingual speakers gradually introduce borrowings through code-switching.
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What domains are most affected by English borrowings in Polish? начать обучение
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IT, business, gaming, social media.
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What is the purpose of using **-ować** in Polish borrowings? начать обучение
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To derive verbs from English bases (e.g., "backupować dane").
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What is an example of a semantic shift in Polish due to English influence? начать обучение
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"Ten build jest solidny" (This build is solid), "Ten projekt dowozi" (This project delivers).
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How does language contact drive language change? начать обучение
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Through the introduction of new words, meanings, and structures, influenced by sociolinguistic factors.
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What is the difference between a pidgin and a creole? начать обучение
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A pidgin is a simplified contact language, while a creole is a pidgin that has become a full, stable language.
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What is contrastive syntax? начать обучение
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The comparison of languages to identify structural similarities/differences, transfer effects, translation difficulties, and language-specific grammatical patterns.
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What are the three main approaches to comparing syntax? начать обучение
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Contrastive Linguistics, Linguistic Typology, Generative Syntax.
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What are some key contrastive differences between languages? начать обучение
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Basic word order, head directionality, subject expression, question formation, inversion, case and agreement, information structure, word-order flexibility.
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What are the three most common basic word orders? начать обучение
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What is head directionality? начать обучение
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The position of the head (main element) in a phrase relative to its dependents (e.g., verb in a verb phrase, noun in a noun phrase).
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What is a null subject (pro-drop) language? начать обучение
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A language that allows subject pronouns to be omitted (e.g., Polish, Spanish).
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What is the difference between wh-fronting and wh-in-situ? начать обучение
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Wh-fronting moves the wh-word to the front of the sentence (e.g., English "What did you buy?"), while wh-in-situ leaves it in place (e.g., Mandarin "Nǐ mǎi le shénme?").
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What is an example of a head-initial language? начать обучение
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What is an example of a head-final language? начать обучение
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How does Polish mark the subject and object in a sentence? начать обучение
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Through case marking (nominative for subject, accusative for object).
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How does Japanese mark the subject and object in a sentence? начать обучение
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Through particles (e.g., "-ga" for subject, "-o" for object).
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What is the word order in a typical English sentence? начать обучение
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SVO (Subject-Verb-Object).
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What is the word order in a typical Japanese sentence? начать обучение
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SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).
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What is the word order in a typical Arabic sentence? начать обучение
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VSO (Verb-Subject-Object).
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What is the word order in a typical Polish sentence? начать обучение
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Flexible, but often SVO (e.g., "Jan zjadł jabłko" or "Jabłko zjadł Jan").
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What is do-support in English questions? начать обучение
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The use of the auxiliary "do" to form questions (e.g., "Did you see it?").
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How do Polish wh-questions differ from English wh-questions? начать обучение
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Polish does not use do-support or subject-auxiliary inversion (e.g., "Co kupiłeś?" vs. "What did you buy?").
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What is V2 (verb-second) word order? начать обучение
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A word order rule where the finite verb appears in the second position in main clauses (e.g., German "Hast du den Film gesehen?").
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What is the role of case marking in languages like Polish and Russian? начать обучение
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Case marking indicates grammatical roles (e.g., subject, object) independently of word order, allowing for flexible word order.
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How does French form yes/no questions? начать обучение
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Through subject-verb inversion (e.g., "As-tu vu ce film?") or using "est-ce que" (e.g., "Est-ce que tu as vu ce film?").
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What is Universal Grammar (UG)? начать обучение
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A theory proposing that human languages are constrained by shared cognitive principles, including general properties and parameters of variation.
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What are the two main components of Universal Grammar? начать обучение
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Principles (general properties) and parameters (points of variation).
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What is an example of a parameter in UG? начать обучение
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Null-subject vs. non-null-subject.
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Why might the null-subject parameter be useful? начать обучение
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It helps classify languages based on whether they allow subject omission (e.g., Polish/Spanish vs. English).
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Why might the null-subject parameter be too simple? начать обучение
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It ignores nuances like context-specific null subjects or discourse-pragmatic factors.
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What is contrastive pragmatics? начать обучение
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The comparison of how languages express requests, apologies, refusals, compliments, disagreement, politeness, and social hierarchy.
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What are the key concepts in contrastive pragmatics? начать обучение
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Politeness hierarchy, face orientation, formulaic routines, contextualization cues.
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What is politeness hierarchy? начать обучение
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How strongly a language reflects age, rank, status, or institutional role.
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What is face in pragmatics? начать обучение
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A person’s public social self-image, including positive face (desire to be liked) and negative face (desire for autonomy).
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What is an example of a positive face threat? начать обучение
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Criticism or disagreement (e.g., "Nobody liked your idea").
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What is an example of a negative face threat? начать обучение
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Requests or orders (e.g., "You must help me today").
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What are formulaic routines? начать обучение
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Fixed or semi-fixed expressions for socially recognizable situations (e.g., "Itadakimasu" in Japanese before eating).
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How do European and Asian pragmatics differ in refusal? начать обучение
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European contexts often use explicit but softened refusals, while Asian contexts often use indirect, delayed, or implied refusals.
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What is a parallel corpus? начать обучение
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A corpus containing texts in two or more languages that are translations of each other, aligned at the sentence or word level.
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What are the four types of corpora? начать обучение
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Monolingual, multilingual, parallel, comparable.
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What is an example of a parallel corpus? начать обучение
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Europarl (European Parliament proceedings in 20+ languages).
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What are the key features of parallel corpora? начать обучение
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Sentence- or word-level alignment, high-quality translations, used in linguistic analysis and machine translation.
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What are the applications of parallel corpora? начать обучение
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Machine translation, domain-specific translation, cross-lingual information retrieval, bilingual lexicon extraction.
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What are alignment challenges in parallel corpora? начать обучение
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Ambiguity, structural differences, idiomatic expressions, omissions/additions.
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What can be analyzed in parallel corpora? начать обучение
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Translation shifts, syntactic differences, lexical choices, cultural nuances, idiomatic expressions, semantic scope.
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Contrastive linguistics is primarily concerned with: начать обучение
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Comparing two or more languages systematically
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What is NOT a typical goal of contrastive linguistics? начать обучение
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Discovering universal cognitive principles through language comparison
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A contrastive analysis of English and Polish can be conducted at: начать обучение
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Multiple linguistic levels simultaneously
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Which area of applied linguistics benefits directly from contrastive analysis? начать обучение
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A learner says: “I have 20 years.” instead of “I am 20 years old.” This error is most likely due to: начать обучение
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Transfer from the first language
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начать обучение
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начать обучение
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The smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning
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Which pair demonstrates a phonemic contrast? начать обучение
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The term phonemic inventory refers to: начать обучение
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All sounds that distinguish meaning in a language
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Which English consonant cluster would likely cause difficulty for speakers of languages with stricter phonotactic constraints? начать обучение
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The fact that English permits street but some languages do not permit similar clusters is an example of: начать обучение
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A language that does not permit word-initial consonant clusters may adapt English school as: начать обучение
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Which statement is considered a phonological universal? начать обучение
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All languages distinguish vowels and consonants.
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The contrast between ship and sheep illustrates: начать обучение
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Phonemic vowel distinction
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начать обучение
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The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit
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Which language type relies heavily on word order and has little inflection? начать обучение
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Which language is classified as predominantly agglutinative? начать обучение
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Which language is presented as a synthetic/fusional language? начать обучение
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Which of the following is a free morpheme? начать обучение
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Which of the following is a bound morpheme? начать обучение
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In the word unhappiness, the prefix un- is: начать обучение
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In the word walked, the suffix -ed is: начать обучение
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Examine the following forms: English: unhappiness, Polish: nie-szczęś-liwość начать обучение
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Both contain derivational morphemes that create new lexical meanings.
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Which statement about agglutinative languages is most accurate? начать обучение
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Each morpheme tends to express one grammatical function.
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Which process is illustrated by: unhappy, rewrite, nieprawda? начать обучение
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The English expression fan-bloody-tastic is an example of: начать обучение
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начать обучение
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A linguistic item transferred from one language to another
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Which factor frequently motivates borrowing? начать обучение
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Which example shows relatively low integration into Polish? начать обучение
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Which example shows high grammatical integration into Polish? начать обучение
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The Polish verb backupować demonstrates: начать обучение
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Morphological adaptation of a borrowing
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The expression: “Zrobimy później research.” (We’ll do research later.) is best classified as: начать обучение
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The expression: “Zboostować post” (To boost a post) illustrates: начать обучение
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Aspectual prefixation applied to a borrowing
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Lexicalization refers to: начать обучение
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Encoding conceptual meaning into lexical items
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According to Talmy, lexicalization involves: начать обучение
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Compressing meaning into linguistic form
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Which pair best illustrates lexicalization differences in motion? начать обучение
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English commonly expresses aspect through: начать обучение
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Periphrastic constructions
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Polish commonly lexicalizes aspect through: начать обучение
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Which pair best illustrates aspectual lexicalization in Polish? начать обучение
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English often encodes path in: начать обучение
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Which language is classified as predominantly SOV? начать обучение
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Which language is presented as having relatively flexible word order? начать обучение
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Compare: English: I am going home. Polish: Idę do domu. This contrast illustrates: начать обучение
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A language that allows omission of subject pronouns is: начать обучение
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Which language from the course is NOT pro-drop? начать обучение
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Which sentence illustrates wh-fronting? начать обучение
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Compare: English: What did you buy? Mandarin: You bought what? This contrast illustrates: начать обучение
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Different question-formation strategies
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Contrastive pragmatics investigates differences in: начать обучение
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A lecturer says: “Could you perhaps send me the document when you have a moment?” This utterance primarily demonstrates: начать обучение
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A researcher wants to compare English originals and Polish translations sentence by sentence. Which resource is most appropriate? начать обучение
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The use of Japanese titles such as -san, -sensei, and -sama primarily signals: начать обучение
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Honorific and social relationships
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Which statement best characterizes a common contrast between many European and East Asian politeness systems discussed in class? начать обучение
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East Asian languages tend to place greater emphasis on hierarchy, honorifics, and indirectness.
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A Korean student uses a more formal speech level when speaking to an older lecturer than when speaking to a classmate. This is primarily an example of: начать обучение
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Register variation based on social hierarchy
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Which scenario best illustrates the concept of face orientation? начать обучение
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Avoiding public criticism in order to protect another person’s social image.
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